Groth16 Proof Verification

Privacy Cash uses Groth16 zero-knowledge proofs for transaction privacy. The Groth16 verifier runs entirely on-chain in Solana programs, leveraging the BN254 elliptic curve precompiled functions.

Groth16 Overview

Groth16 is a zero-knowledge SNARK (Succinct Non-interactive Argument of Knowledge) that provides:

Small proof size: 256 bytes (2 G1 points + 1 G2 point)
Fast verification: Single pairing check
Trusted setup: Requires ceremony for each circuit

The proof consists of three elliptic curve points:

proof_a: G1 point (64 bytes)
proof_b: G2 point (128 bytes)
proof_c: G1 point (64 bytes)

Verification Key Structure

The verifying key is generated during the trusted setup and contains:

pub struct Groth16Verifyingkey<'a> {
    pub nr_pubinputs: usize,        // Number of public inputs
    pub vk_alpha_g1: [u8; 64],      // Alpha in G1
    pub vk_beta_g2: [u8; 128],      // Beta in G2
    pub vk_gamme_g2: [u8; 128],     // Gamma in G2
    pub vk_delta_g2: [u8; 128],     // Delta in G2
    pub vk_ic: &'a [[u8; 64]],      // IC coefficients in G1
}

Key components:

Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta: Cryptographic parameters from trusted setup
IC coefficients: vk_ic[0] is the constant term, vk_ic[1..n+1] are coefficients for each public input
The length of vk_ic must equal nr_pubinputs + 1

Verifier Implementation

The verifier is implemented in src/groth16.rs and provides a safe, efficient verification interface:

pub struct Groth16Verifier<'a, const NR_INPUTS: usize> {
    proof_a: &'a [u8; 64],
    proof_b: &'a [u8; 128],
    proof_c: &'a [u8; 64],
    public_inputs: &'a [[u8; 32]; NR_INPUTS],
    prepared_public_inputs: [u8; 64],
    verifyingkey: &'a Groth16Verifyingkey<'a>,
}

Verification Process

1. Initialization

let mut verifier = Groth16Verifier::new(
    &proof_a,
    &proof_b,
    &proof_c,
    public_inputs.as_slice(),
    &verifying_key,
)?;

The new function performs validation:

if proof_a.len() != 64 {
    return Err(Groth16Error::InvalidG1Length);
}

if proof_b.len() != 128 {
    return Err(Groth16Error::InvalidG2Length);
}

if proof_c.len() != 64 {
    return Err(Groth16Error::InvalidG1Length);
}

if public_inputs.len() + 1 != verifyingkey.vk_ic.len() {
    return Err(Groth16Error::InvalidPublicInputsLength);
}

2. Preparing Public Inputs

The core of Groth16 verification involves computing a linear combination of IC coefficients:

pub fn prepare_inputs<const CHECK: bool>(&mut self) -> Result<(), Groth16Error> {
    let mut prepared_public_inputs = self.verifyingkey.vk_ic[0];
    
    for (i, input) in self.public_inputs.iter().enumerate() {
        if CHECK && !is_less_than_bn254_field_size_be(input) {
            return Err(Groth16Error::PublicInputGreaterThanFieldSize);
        }
        let mul_res = alt_bn128_multiplication(
            &[&self.verifyingkey.vk_ic[i + 1][..], &input[..]].concat(),
        )
        .map_err(|_| Groth16Error::PreparingInputsG1MulFailed)?;
        prepared_public_inputs =
            alt_bn128_addition(&[&mul_res[..], &prepared_public_inputs[..]].concat())
                .map_err(|_| Groth16Error::PreparingInputsG1AdditionFailed)?[..]
                .try_into()
                .map_err(|_| Groth16Error::PreparingInputsG1AdditionFailed)?;
    }
    
    self.prepared_public_inputs = prepared_public_inputs;
    Ok(())
}

Algorithm:

Start with vk_ic[0] (constant term)
For each public input x[i]:
- Multiply vk_ic[i+1] by scalar x[i] (G1 multiplication)
- Add result to running sum (G1 addition)
Result: vk_ic[0] + x[0]*vk_ic[1] + x[1]*vk_ic[2] + ... + x[n-1]*vk_ic[n]

This computed value represents the public input component of the proof. Optional field size check: When CHECK = true, each public input is verified to be less than the BN254 field modulus:

pub fn is_less_than_bn254_field_size_be(bytes: &[u8; 32]) -> bool {
    let bigint = BigUint::from_bytes_be(bytes);
    bigint < ark_bn254::Fr::MODULUS.into()
}

3. Pairing Check

The final verification performs a bilinear pairing check:

fn verify_common<const CHECK: bool>(&mut self) -> Result<bool, Groth16Error> {
    self.prepare_inputs::<CHECK>()?;
    
    let pairing_input = [
        self.proof_a.as_slice(),
        self.proof_b.as_slice(),
        self.prepared_public_inputs.as_slice(),
        self.verifyingkey.vk_gamme_g2.as_slice(),
        self.proof_c.as_slice(),
        self.verifyingkey.vk_delta_g2.as_slice(),
        self.verifyingkey.vk_alpha_g1.as_slice(),
        self.verifyingkey.vk_beta_g2.as_slice(),
    ]
    .concat();
    
    let pairing_res = alt_bn128_pairing(pairing_input.as_slice())
        .map_err(|_| Groth16Error::ProofVerificationFailed)?;
    
    if pairing_res[31] != 1 {
        return Err(Groth16Error::ProofVerificationFailed);
    }
    Ok(true)
}

Pairing equation: The verifier checks:

e(A, B) = e(α, β) * e(L, γ) * e(C, δ)

Where:

A = proof_a
B = proof_b
C = proof_c
L = prepared_public_inputs
α = vk_alpha_g1
β = vk_beta_g2
γ = vk_gamma_g2
δ = vk_delta_g2

The pairing function takes 4 pairs of points (8 total) and computes:

e(A, B) * e(L, γ) * e(C, δ) * e(α, β) = 1

If the result equals 1 (checked via pairing_res[31] != 1), the proof is valid.

Verification API

Two verification methods are provided:

Checked Verification

pub fn verify(&mut self) -> Result<bool, Groth16Error> {
    self.verify_common::<true>()
}

Validates that all public inputs are within the BN254 field size. Use this by default for security.

Unchecked Verification

pub fn verify_unchecked(&mut self) -> Result<bool, Groth16Error> {
    self.verify_common::<false>()
}

Skips field size validation for a small gas optimization. Only use if inputs are pre-validated.

Solana BN254 Precompiles

The verifier uses Solana’s native BN254 precompiled functions for efficient elliptic curve operations:

alt_bn128_multiplication

let mul_res = alt_bn128_multiplication(
    &[&point[..], &scalar[..]].concat(),
)?;

Computes scalar multiplication: point * scalar on the BN254 curve. Cost: ~2,100 compute units

alt_bn128_addition

let sum = alt_bn128_addition(
    &[&point1[..], &point2[..]].concat(),
)?;

Computes point addition: point1 + point2 on the BN254 curve. Cost: ~540 compute units

alt_bn128_pairing

let result = alt_bn128_pairing(pairing_input.as_slice())?;

Computes a pairing check over 4 pairs of G1 and G2 points. Cost: ~25,000 compute units

Usage Example

use crate::groth16::{Groth16Verifier, Groth16Verifyingkey};

// Parse proof components
let proof_a: [u8; 64] = // ... from proof bytes [0..64]
let proof_b: [u8; 128] = // ... from proof bytes [64..192]
let proof_c: [u8; 64] = // ... from proof bytes [192..256]

// Public inputs (7 for Privacy Cash transaction circuit)
let public_inputs: [[u8; 32]; 7] = [
    root,
    public_amount,
    ext_data_hash,
    input_nullifier[0],
    input_nullifier[1],
    output_commitment[0],
    output_commitment[1],
];

// Create verifier
let mut verifier = Groth16Verifier::new(
    &proof_a,
    &proof_b,
    &proof_c,
    &public_inputs,
    &verifying_key,
)?;

// Verify proof
verifier.verify()?;

Error Handling

The verifier defines comprehensive error types:

pub enum Groth16Error {
    InvalidG1Length,
    InvalidG2Length,
    InvalidPublicInputsLength,
    PublicInputGreaterThanFieldSize,
    PreparingInputsG1MulFailed,
    PreparingInputsG1AdditionFailed,
    ProofVerificationFailed,
}

Performance Characteristics

Total compute units: ~30,000-35,000 CU Breakdown:

Input preparation: ~2,100 CU per public input (scalar mul) + ~540 CU per addition
Pairing check: ~25,000 CU
Overhead: ~1,000 CU

For Privacy Cash with 7 public inputs:

7 × 2,100 = 14,700 CU (multiplications)
7 × 540 = 3,780 CU (additions)
25,000 CU (pairing)
Total: ~44,000 CU

This fits comfortably within Solana’s 200,000 CU default limit for instructions.

Security Considerations

Trusted Setup

Groth16 requires a circuit-specific trusted setup. If the setup’s “toxic waste” is not destroyed, proofs can be forged. Privacy Cash uses:

Multi-party computation (MPC) ceremonies
Multiple independent participants
Public verification transcripts

Proof Malleability

Groth16 proofs are non-malleable. An attacker cannot modify a valid proof without breaking the pairing equation.

Field Overflow

Public inputs must be validated to be less than the BN254 field modulus. The verify() method enforces this, preventing field overflow attacks.

Side-Channel Resistance

The verifier operates on public data only (proof and public inputs), so it is not vulnerable to timing attacks.

Implementation Source

The Groth16 verifier is adapted from Light Protocol’s implementation, which provides a battle-tested, gas-optimized verifier for Solana.

Architecture

Configuration

Groth16 Proof Verification

Groth16 Proof Verification

Groth16 Overview

Verification Key Structure

Verifier Implementation

Verification Process

1. Initialization

2. Preparing Public Inputs

3. Pairing Check

Verification API

Checked Verification

Unchecked Verification

Solana BN254 Precompiles

alt_bn128_multiplication

alt_bn128_addition

alt_bn128_pairing

Usage Example

Error Handling

Performance Characteristics

Security Considerations

Trusted Setup

Proof Malleability

Field Overflow

Side-Channel Resistance

Implementation Source

Build docs developers (and LLMs) love

Architecture

Configuration

​Groth16 Proof Verification

​Groth16 Overview

​Verification Key Structure

​Verifier Implementation

​Verification Process

​1. Initialization

​2. Preparing Public Inputs

​3. Pairing Check

​Verification API

​Checked Verification

​Unchecked Verification

​Solana BN254 Precompiles

​alt_bn128_multiplication

​alt_bn128_addition

​alt_bn128_pairing

​Usage Example

​Error Handling

​Performance Characteristics

​Security Considerations

​Trusted Setup

​Proof Malleability

​Field Overflow

​Side-Channel Resistance

​Implementation Source

Build docs developers (and LLMs) love

Groth16 Proof Verification

Groth16 Overview

Verification Key Structure

Verifier Implementation

Verification Process

1. Initialization

2. Preparing Public Inputs

3. Pairing Check

Verification API

Checked Verification

Unchecked Verification

Solana BN254 Precompiles

alt_bn128_multiplication

alt_bn128_addition

alt_bn128_pairing

Usage Example

Error Handling

Performance Characteristics

Security Considerations

Trusted Setup

Proof Malleability

Field Overflow

Side-Channel Resistance

Implementation Source