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MLX enables efficient inference of large-ish transformers on Apple silicon without compromising on ease of use. In this example, we’ll create an inference script for the Llama family of transformer models with the model defined in less than 200 lines of Python.

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Implementing the Model

We’ll use the neural network building blocks defined in the mlx.nn module to concisely define the model architecture.

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Attention Layer

We’ll start with the Llama attention layer which uses RoPE positional encoding. Our implementation includes an optional key/value cache for efficient inference. We use mlx.nn.Linear for all projections and mlx.nn.RoPE for positional encoding: 
import mlx.core as mx
import mlx.nn as nn

class LlamaAttention(nn.Module):
    def __init__(self, dims: int, num_heads: int):
        super().__init__()

        self.num_heads = num_heads

        self.rope = nn.RoPE(dims // num_heads, traditional=True)
        self.query_proj = nn.Linear(dims, dims, bias=False)
        self.key_proj = nn.Linear(dims, dims, bias=False)
        self.value_proj = nn.Linear(dims, dims, bias=False)
        self.out_proj = nn.Linear(dims, dims, bias=False)

    def __call__(self, queries, keys, values, mask=None, cache=None):
        queries = self.query_proj(queries)
        keys = self.key_proj(keys)
        values = self.value_proj(values)

        # Extract some shapes
        num_heads = self.num_heads
        B, L, D = queries.shape

        # Prepare the queries, keys and values for the attention computation
        queries = queries.reshape(B, L, num_heads, -1).transpose(0, 2, 1, 3)
        keys = keys.reshape(B, L, num_heads, -1).transpose(0, 2, 1, 3)
        values = values.reshape(B, L, num_heads, -1).transpose(0, 2, 1, 3)

        # Add RoPE to the queries and keys and combine them with the cache
        if cache is not None:
            key_cache, value_cache = cache
            queries = self.rope(queries, offset=key_cache.shape[2])
            keys = self.rope(keys, offset=key_cache.shape[2])
            keys = mx.concatenate([key_cache, keys], axis=2)
            values = mx.concatenate([value_cache, values], axis=2)
        else:
            queries = self.rope(queries)
            keys = self.rope(keys)

        # Finally perform the attention computation
        scale = math.sqrt(1 / queries.shape[-1])
        scores = (queries * scale) @ keys.transpose(0, 1, 3, 2)
        if mask is not None:
            scores = scores + mask
        scores = mx.softmax(scores, axis=-1)
        values_hat = (scores @ values).transpose(0, 2, 1, 3).reshape(B, L, -1)

        # Note that we return the keys and values to possibly be used as a cache
        return self.out_proj(values_hat), (keys, values)

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Encoder Layer

The encoder layer uses RMS normalization and SwiGLU activation. We use the mlx.nn.RMSNorm layer that’s already provided: 
class LlamaEncoderLayer(nn.Module):
    def __init__(self, dims: int, mlp_dims: int, num_heads: int):
        super().__init__()

        self.attention = LlamaAttention(dims, num_heads)

        self.norm1 = nn.RMSNorm(dims)
        self.norm2 = nn.RMSNorm(dims)

        self.linear1 = nn.Linear(dims, mlp_dims, bias=False)
        self.linear2 = nn.Linear(dims, mlp_dims, bias=False)
        self.linear3 = nn.Linear(mlp_dims, dims, bias=False)

    def __call__(self, x, mask=None, cache=None):
        y = self.norm1(x)
        y, cache = self.attention(y, y, y, mask, cache)
        x = x + y

        y = self.norm2(x)
        a = self.linear1(y)
        b = self.linear2(y)
        y = a * mx.sigmoid(a) * b
        y = self.linear3(y)
        x = x + y

        return x, cache

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Full Model

To implement any Llama model, we simply combine LlamaEncoderLayer instances with an mlx.nn.Embedding to embed the input tokens: 
class Llama(nn.Module):
    def __init__(
        self, num_layers: int, vocab_size: int, dims: int, mlp_dims: int, num_heads: int
    ):
        super().__init__()

        self.embedding = nn.Embedding(vocab_size, dims)
        self.layers = [
            LlamaEncoderLayer(dims, mlp_dims, num_heads) for _ in range(num_layers)
        ]
        self.norm = nn.RMSNorm(dims)
        self.out_proj = nn.Linear(dims, vocab_size, bias=False)

    def __call__(self, x):
        mask = nn.MultiHeadAttention.create_additive_causal_mask(x.shape[1])
        mask = mask.astype(self.embedding.weight.dtype)

        x = self.embedding(x)
        for l in self.layers:
            x, _ = l(x, mask)
        x = self.norm(x)
        return self.out_proj(x)
We use a simple list to hold the encoder layers, but model.parameters() will still consider these layers.

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Generation

The __call__ method above is suitable for training but not inference. We need to add a generation method that uses the cache and performs autoregressive sampling: 
class Llama(nn.Module):
    # ... (previous methods)

    def generate(self, x, temp=1.0):
        cache = []

        # Make an additive causal mask. We will need that to process the prompt.
        mask = nn.MultiHeadAttention.create_additive_causal_mask(x.shape[1])
        mask = mask.astype(self.embedding.weight.dtype)

        # First we process the prompt x the same way as in __call__ but
        # save the caches in cache
        x = self.embedding(x)
        for l in self.layers:
            x, c = l(x, mask=mask)
            cache.append(c)
        x = self.norm(x)
        y = self.out_proj(x[:, -1])  # we only care about the last logits
        y = mx.random.categorical(y * (1/temp))

        # Since MLX is lazily evaluated nothing is computed yet.
        yield y

        # Now we parsed the prompt and generated the first token we
        # need to feed it back into the model and loop to generate the rest.
        while True:
            # Unsqueezing the last dimension to add a sequence length dimension of 1
            x = y[:, None]

            x = self.embedding(x)
            for i in range(len(cache)):
                # We are overwriting the arrays in the cache list. When
                # the computation will happen, MLX will be discarding the
                # old cache the moment it is not needed anymore.
                x, cache[i] = self.layers[i](x, mask=None, cache=cache[i])
            x = self.norm(x)
            y = self.out_proj(x[:, -1])
            y = mx.random.categorical(y * (1/temp))

            yield y

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Using the Model

We now have everything needed to create a Llama model and sample tokens from it: 
model = Llama(num_layers=12, vocab_size=8192, dims=512, mlp_dims=1024, num_heads=8)

# Since MLX is lazily evaluated nothing has actually been materialized yet.
mx.eval(model.parameters())

prompt = mx.array([[1, 10, 8, 32, 44, 7]])

generated = [t for i, t in zip(range(10), model.generate(prompt, 0.8))]

# Since we haven't evaluated anything, nothing is computed yet. The list
# `generated` contains the arrays that hold the computation graph.
mx.eval(generated)

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Converting Weights

To use actual Llama weights, you need to convert PyTorch weights to MLX format. Here’s a script that maps PyTorch parameter names to MLX names: 
import argparse
from itertools import starmap

import numpy as np
import torch

def map_torch_to_mlx(key, value):
    if "tok_embedding" in key:
        key = "embedding.weight"

    elif "norm" in key:
        key = key.replace("attention_norm", "norm1").replace("ffn_norm", "norm2")

    elif "wq" in key or "wk" in key or "wv" in key or "wo" in key:
        key = key.replace("wq", "query_proj")
        key = key.replace("wk", "key_proj")
        key = key.replace("wv", "value_proj")
        key = key.replace("wo", "out_proj")

    elif "w1" in key or "w2" in key or "w3" in key:
        key = key.replace("feed_forward.w1", "linear1")
        key = key.replace("feed_forward.w3", "linear2")
        key = key.replace("feed_forward.w2", "linear3")

    elif "output" in key:
        key = key.replace("output", "out_proj")

    elif "rope" in key:
        return None, None

    return key, value.numpy()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description="Convert Llama weights to MLX")
    parser.add_argument("torch_weights")
    parser.add_argument("output_file")
    args = parser.parse_args()

    state = torch.load(args.torch_weights)
    np.savez(
        args.output_file,
        **{k: v for k, v in starmap(map_torch_to_mlx, state.items()) if k is not None}
    )

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Loading Weights and Benchmarking

Load the converted weights using mlx.utils.tree_unflatten: 
from mlx.utils import tree_unflatten

model.update(tree_unflatten(list(mx.load(weight_file).items())))
The tree_unflatten method transforms flat keys like layers.2.attention.query_proj.weight into nested dictionaries that can update the model.

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Example Usage

$ python convert.py weights.pth llama-7B.mlx.npz
$ python llama.py llama-7B.mlx.npz tokenizer.model 'Call me Ishmael. Some years ago never mind how long precisely'
[INFO] Loading model from disk: 5.247 s
Press enter to start generation
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, having little or no money in my purse, and nothing of greater consequence in my mind...
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[INFO] Prompt processing: 0.437 s
[INFO] Full generation: 4.330 s
This achieves about 39 ms per token on an M1 Ultra with the 7B parameter Llama model. The per-token generation time remains almost constant even with much larger prompts.

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Complete Example

The full example code is available in mlx-examples.

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