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Errors in Python come in two main types: syntax errors and exceptions. This guide shows you how to handle them properly.

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Syntax Errors

Syntax errors (parsing errors) occur when Python can’t understand your code: 
>>> while True print('Hello world')
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    while True print('Hello world')
               ^^^^^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
The parser shows the offending line and points to the error location with arrows. In this case, the error is at print() because a colon (:) is missing.

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Exceptions

Even syntactically correct code can cause errors during execution: 
>>> 10 * (1/0)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
    10 * (1/0)
          ~^~
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

>>> 4 + spam*3
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
    4 + spam*3
        ^^^^
NameError: name 'spam' is not defined

>>> '2' + 2
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
    '2' + 2
    ~~~~^~~
TypeError: can only concatenate str (not "int") to str
The last line shows the exception type (ZeroDivisionError, NameError, TypeError) and a description of what went wrong.

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Handling Exceptions

Use try...except to handle exceptions: 
>>> while True:
...     try:
...         x = int(input("Please enter a number: "))
...         break
...     except ValueError:
...         print("Oops! That was no valid number. Try again...")
How it works:
  1. The try clause is executed
  2. If no exception occurs, the except clause is skipped
  3. If an exception occurs, the rest of the try clause is skipped
  4. If the exception matches the type in except, that clause is executed
  5. If the exception doesn’t match, it’s passed to outer try statements

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Multiple Except Clauses

Handle different exceptions differently: 
try:
    # risky operation
    pass
except ValueError:
    print("Invalid value")
except TypeError:
    print("Type mismatch")
except (RuntimeError, KeyError, NameError):
    print("One of several errors occurred")

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Exception Hierarchy

Exceptions inherit from base classes: 
class B(Exception):
    pass

class C(B):
    pass

class D(C):
    pass

for cls in [B, C, D]:
    try:
        raise cls()
    except D:
        print("D")
    except C:
        print("C")
    except B:
        print("B")
Output: B, C, D
Order matters! If you reversed the except clauses (with except B first), it would print B, B, B.

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Accessing Exception Details

>>> try:
...     raise Exception('spam', 'eggs')
... except Exception as inst:
...     print(type(inst))    # the exception type
...     print(inst.args)     # arguments stored in .args
...     print(inst)          # __str__ allows args to be printed directly
...     x, y = inst.args     # unpack args
...     print('x =', x)
...     print('y =', y)
...
<class 'Exception'>
('spam', 'eggs')
('spam', 'eggs')
x = spam
y = eggs

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The else Clause

Code in the else clause runs if no exception occurs: 
import sys

for arg in sys.argv[1:]:
    try:
        f = open(arg, 'r')
    except OSError:
        print('cannot open', arg)
    else:
        print(arg, 'has', len(f.readlines()), 'lines')
        f.close()
The else clause is better than adding code to the try clause because it avoids catching exceptions that weren’t raised by the protected code.

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Raising Exceptions

Use raise to trigger an exception: 
>>> raise NameError('HiThere')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
    raise NameError('HiThere')
NameError: HiThere
Shorthand for exception classes: 
raise ValueError  # equivalent to raise ValueError()
Re-raising exceptions: 
>>> try:
...     raise NameError('HiThere')
... except NameError:
...     print('An exception flew by!')
...     raise
...
An exception flew by!
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
    raise NameError('HiThere')
NameError: HiThere

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Exception Chaining

When handling an exception, you can raise another exception and preserve the context: 
>>> try:
...     open("database.sqlite")
... except OSError:
...     raise RuntimeError("unable to handle error")
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
    open("database.sqlite")
FileNotFoundError: [Errno 2] No such file or directory: 'database.sqlite'

During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
    raise RuntimeError("unable to handle error")
RuntimeError: unable to handle error
Explicit chaining: 
>>> def func():
...     raise ConnectionError
...
>>> try:
...     func()
... except ConnectionError as exc:
...     raise RuntimeError('Failed to open database') from exc
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
    func()
ConnectionError

The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
    raise RuntimeError('Failed to open database') from exc
RuntimeError: Failed to open database
Disable chaining: 
>>> try:
...     open('database.sqlite')
... except OSError:
...     raise RuntimeError from None
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
    raise RuntimeError from None
RuntimeError

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User-defined Exceptions

Create custom exceptions by deriving from Exception: 
class InputError(Exception):
    """Exception raised for errors in the input.
    
    Attributes:
        expression -- input expression in which the error occurred
        message -- explanation of the error
    """

    def __init__(self, expression, message):
        self.expression = expression
        self.message = message
Most exceptions are named with names ending in “Error”, similar to standard exceptions.

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Defining Clean-up Actions

The finally clause always executes, whether an exception occurred or not: 
>>> try:
...     raise KeyboardInterrupt
... finally:
...     print('Goodbye, world!')
...
Goodbye, world!
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
    raise KeyboardInterrupt
KeyboardInterrupt
Complex example: 
>>> def divide(x, y):
...     try:
...         result = x / y
...     except ZeroDivisionError:
...         print("division by zero!")
...     else:
...         print("result is", result)
...     finally:
...         print("executing finally clause")
...
>>> divide(2, 1)
result is 2.0
executing finally clause
>>> divide(2, 0)
division by zero!
executing finally clause
>>> divide("2", "1")
executing finally clause
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  File "<stdin>", line 3, in divide
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for /: 'str' and 'str'
The finally clause is useful for releasing external resources (files, network connections) regardless of whether the operation was successful.

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Predefined Clean-up Actions

The with statement ensures objects are properly cleaned up: 
with open("myfile.txt") as f:
    for line in f:
        print(line, end="")
The file is always closed after the block, even if an error occurs.

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Exception Groups

Raise multiple unrelated exceptions together: 
>>> def f():
...     excs = [OSError('error 1'), SystemError('error 2')]
...     raise ExceptionGroup('there were problems', excs)
...
>>> f()
  + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
  |   File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in f
  | ExceptionGroup: there were problems (2 sub-exceptions)
  +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
    | OSError: error 1
    +---------------- 2 ----------------
    | SystemError: error 2

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Handling Exception Groups

Use except* to handle specific exception types in a group: 
>>> try:
...     f()
... except* OSError as e:
...     print("There were OSErrors")
... except* SystemError as e:
...     print("There were SystemErrors")
...
There were OSErrors
There were SystemErrors

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Enriching Exceptions with Notes

Add contextual information to exceptions: 
>>> try:
...     raise TypeError('bad type')
... except Exception as e:
...     e.add_note('Add some information')
...     e.add_note('Add some more information')
...     raise
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
    raise TypeError('bad type')
TypeError: bad type
Add some information
Add some more information
Practical example: 
>>> def f():
...     raise OSError('operation failed')
...
>>> excs = []
>>> for i in range(3):
...     try:
...         f()
...     except Exception as e:
...         e.add_note(f'Happened in Iteration {i+1}')
...         excs.append(e)
...
>>> raise ExceptionGroup('We have some problems', excs)

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Best Practices

Be Specific

Catch specific exceptions rather than using bare except:

Use finally

Clean up resources in finally clauses or use with statements

Document Exceptions

Document which exceptions your functions might raise

Don't Silence Errors

Avoid empty except blocks that hide problems

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Next Steps

You now understand how to handle errors gracefully. Finally, learn about Classes to create your own custom types and objects.

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