Built-in Types

# Integer literals
x = 42
y = -17
large = 123456789012345678901234567890

# Different bases
binary = 0b1010  # 10
octal = 0o755  # 493
hex = 0xFF  # 255

# Operations
a = 10 + 5  # 15
b = 10 - 5  # 5
c = 10 * 5  # 50
d = 10 / 5  # 2.0 (float division)
e = 10 // 3  # 3 (floor division)
f = 10 % 3  # 1 (modulo)
g = 2 ** 8  # 256 (power)

x = 3.14
y = -0.5
scientific = 1.5e-3  # 0.0015
infinity = float('inf')
not_a_number = float('nan')

# Operations
import math
math.ceil(3.7)  # 4
math.floor(3.7)  # 3
math.sqrt(16)  # 4.0

z = 3 + 4j
w = complex(1, 2)  # 1+2j

# Access parts
z.real  # 3.0
z.imag  # 4.0

# Operations
z + w  # (4+6j)
abs(z)  # 5.0 (magnitude)

x = True
y = False

# Boolean operations
True and False  # False
True or False  # True
not True  # False

# Truthiness
bool(0)  # False
bool("")  # False
bool([])  # False
bool(None)  # False
bool(42)  # True
bool("text")  # True

# String literals
single = 'hello'
double = "world"
triple = '''multi
line
string'''

# String operations
s = "Hello, World!"
len(s)  # 13
s.upper()  # "HELLO, WORLD!"
s.lower()  # "hello, world!"
s.strip()  # Remove whitespace
s.replace("World", "Python")  # "Hello, Python!"

# Indexing and slicing
s[0]  # 'H'
s[-1]  # '!'
s[0:5]  # 'Hello'
s[7:]  # 'World!'
s[::-1]  # Reverse string

# String methods
s.split(',')  # ['Hello', ' World!']
','.join(['a', 'b', 'c'])  # 'a,b,c'
s.startswith('Hello')  # True
s.endswith('!')  # True
s.find('World')  # 7

# Formatting
name = "Alice"
age = 30
f"My name is {name} and I'm {age}"  # f-strings
"My name is {} and I'm {}".format(name, age)  # format method
"My name is %s and I'm %d" % (name, age)  # % formatting

# Create lists
empty = []
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
mixed = [1, "two", 3.0, [4, 5]]

# Access elements
numbers[0]  # 1
numbers[-1]  # 5
numbers[1:3]  # [2, 3]

# Modify
numbers.append(6)  # Add to end
numbers.insert(0, 0)  # Insert at position
numbers.extend([7, 8])  # Add multiple items
numbers.remove(3)  # Remove first occurrence
popped = numbers.pop()  # Remove and return last item
popped = numbers.pop(0)  # Remove and return item at index

# Common operations
len(numbers)  # Length
numbers.sort()  # Sort in place
numbers.reverse()  # Reverse in place
numbers.count(2)  # Count occurrences
numbers.index(5)  # Find index of value

# List comprehension
squares = [x**2 for x in range(10)]
even = [x for x in range(10) if x % 2 == 0]

# Create tuples
empty = ()
single = (1,)  # Note the comma
pair = (1, 2)
coordinates = (10, 20, 30)

# Unpacking
x, y = (1, 2)
a, b, c = (1, 2, 3)

# Access
coordinates[0]  # 10
coordinates[1:3]  # (20, 30)

# Named tuples
from collections import namedtuple
Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])
p = Point(10, 20)
p.x  # 10
p.y  # 20

# Create ranges
r = range(10)  # 0 to 9
r = range(5, 10)  # 5 to 9
r = range(0, 10, 2)  # 0, 2, 4, 6, 8

# Convert to list
list(range(5))  # [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

# Common use in loops
for i in range(10):
    print(i)

# Create dictionaries
empty = {}
person = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 30, 'city': 'NYC'}
from_pairs = dict([('a', 1), ('b', 2)])
from_kwargs = dict(x=1, y=2)

# Access
person['name']  # 'Alice'
person.get('email', 'N/A')  # 'N/A' (default value)

# Modify
person['age'] = 31  # Update
person['email'] = '[email protected]'  # Add
del person['city']  # Delete

# Methods
person.keys()  # dict_keys(['name', 'age', 'email'])
person.values()  # dict_values(['Alice', 31, '[email protected]'])
person.items()  # dict_items([('name', 'Alice'), ...])

# Iteration
for key in person:
    print(key, person[key])

for key, value in person.items():
    print(key, value)

# Dictionary comprehension
squares = {x: x**2 for x in range(5)}
# {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16}

# Merging (Python 3.9+)
dict1 = {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
dict2 = {'b': 3, 'c': 4}
merged = dict1 | dict2  # {'a': 1, 'b': 3, 'c': 4}

# Create sets
empty = set()  # Note: {} creates empty dict
numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
from_list = set([1, 2, 2, 3, 3])  # {1, 2, 3}

# Add and remove
numbers.add(6)
numbers.remove(1)  # Raises KeyError if not found
numbers.discard(10)  # No error if not found
popped = numbers.pop()  # Remove arbitrary element

# Set operations
a = {1, 2, 3, 4}
b = {3, 4, 5, 6}

a | b  # Union: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
a & b  # Intersection: {3, 4}
a - b  # Difference: {1, 2}
a ^ b  # Symmetric difference: {1, 2, 5, 6}

# Methods
a.union(b)
a.intersection(b)
a.difference(b)
a.symmetric_difference(b)

# Subset/superset
a.issubset(b)
a.issuperset(b)

# Set comprehension
evens = {x for x in range(10) if x % 2 == 0}

fs = frozenset([1, 2, 3, 4])
# Can be used as dict key or set element
data = {fs: 'value'}

# Create bytes
b1 = b'hello'
b2 = bytes([72, 101, 108, 108, 111])
b3 = 'hello'.encode('utf-8')

# Operations
len(b1)  # 5
b1[0]  # 104 (byte value)
b1.decode('utf-8')  # 'hello'

ba = bytearray(b'hello')
ba[0] = 72  # Modify
ba.append(33)  # Add byte

data = bytearray(b'hello')
mv = memoryview(data)
mv[0] = 72  # Modifies data in place

x = None

if x is None:
    print("x is None")

def func():
    return None  # Implicit if no return statement

# Common usage
result = data.get('key')  # Returns None if key not found

# Check type
type(42)  # <class 'int'>
type("hello")  # <class 'str'>

# Instance checking
isinstance(42, int)  # True
isinstance("hello", (int, str))  # True (checks multiple types)

# Subclass checking
issubclass(bool, int)  # True

# To integer
int("42")  # 42
int(3.14)  # 3
int("FF", 16)  # 255 (from hex)

# To float
float("3.14")  # 3.14
float(42)  # 42.0

# To string
str(42)  # "42"
str([1, 2, 3])  # "[1, 2, 3]"

# To list
list("abc")  # ['a', 'b', 'c']
list(range(5))  # [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

# To tuple
tuple([1, 2, 3])  # (1, 2, 3)

# To set
set([1, 2, 2, 3])  # {1, 2, 3}

# To dict
dict([('a', 1), ('b', 2)])  # {'a': 1, 'b': 2}

len("hello")  # 5
len([1, 2, 3])  # 3
len({'a': 1, 'b': 2})  # 2

'a' in "abc"  # True
2 in [1, 2, 3]  # True
'key' in {'key': 'value'}  # True

for char in "hello":
    print(char)

for item in [1, 2, 3]:
    print(item)

for key, value in {'a': 1, 'b': 2}.items():
    print(key, value)

from typing import List, Dict, Tuple, Set, Optional

def process_items(items: List[int]) -> Dict[str, int]:
    result: Dict[str, int] = {}
    for item in items:
        result[str(item)] = item * 2
    return result

def find_user(user_id: int) -> Optional[Dict[str, str]]:
    # May return None
    if user_id > 0:
        return {'id': str(user_id), 'name': 'User'}
    return None